Flight Rules and Air Law: Complete RPL/PPL Study Guide

Before commencing a flight, a pilot must ensure all required documentation is carried and valid. This section covers the documents you must have on board, the authority and responsibilities of the pilot in command (PIC), and the fitness-for-flight requirements under Australian aviation law — including alcohol, drugs, fatigue, and medication.

Required Documents

The following documents must be carried on every flight:

• Flight crew licence: The pilot's current and valid flight crew licence appropriate for the operation being conducted.
• Medical certificate: A current aviation medical certificate of the appropriate class. For private operations, this is typically a Class 2 medical certificate issued by a Designated Aviation Medical Examiner (DAME). Alternatively, where applicable, a pilot may hold a Basic Class 2 medical certificate, which can be obtained through any Ahpra-registered medical practitioner (e.g., a general practitioner) who assesses the applicant against Austroads commercial vehicle driver fitness standards. This pathway provides a more accessible option for recreational and private pilots who meet the eligibility criteria.
• Photographic identification: Acceptable photo identification must be carried. CASA requires the photo ID to be current and acceptable (e.g., a driver's licence, passport, or government-issued photo ID). There is no specific "issued within 10 years" requirement under civil aviation regulations — the ID must simply be valid and reasonably identify the holder.
• Aircraft flight manual (AFM): The current and approved AFM (or pilot's operating handbook) for the aircraft must be accessible in the cockpit.
• Maintenance release: A valid maintenance release for the aircraft must be carried on board. The PIC must check the maintenance release before flight to confirm the aircraft is serviceable, that no life-limited items have expired, and that any recorded defects do not prevent safe flight.

Additional documents that may be required depending on the operation include the aircraft's certificate of registration, certificate of airworthiness, flight radio operator's licence (if applicable), and any relevant CASA approvals or authorisations.

Pilot in Command Authority and Responsibility

Under CASR Part 91, the pilot in command has final authority and responsibility for the operation and safety of the aircraft during flight. For regulatory purposes, a flight begins when the aircraft first moves under its own power for the purpose of taking off, and ends when the aircraft comes to rest at the end of the flight after landing. Throughout this period, the PIC has ultimate authority over the aircraft and all persons on board.

It is important not to confuse this with the "doors closed to doors open" definition, which applies under the Crimes (Aviation) Act 1991 for aviation security purposes and is not the correct regulatory framing for PIC authority under civil aviation law. This is frequently tested in the CASA exam.

The PIC's responsibilities include, but are not limited to:

• Ensuring the aircraft is airworthy and safe for the intended flight.
• Conducting a thorough pre-flight inspection and reviewing the maintenance release.
• Ensuring weight and balance are within limits.
• Obtaining and assessing relevant weather information and NOTAMs.
• Planning fuel requirements in accordance with regulations (fixed reserve, variable reserve, and alternate fuel as applicable).
• Ensuring compliance with all applicable regulations and air traffic control instructions.
• Making the final go/no-go decision on whether a flight can be safely conducted.
• Ensuring all required documents and equipment are on board before departure.
• Advising passengers of safety procedures, including the use of seatbelts, emergency exits, and the location of safety equipment.

Fitness for Flight — Drug and Alcohol Requirements

Fitness for flight is strictly regulated under Australian aviation law. Under CASR 91.055, a pilot must not perform any duty associated with the operation of an aircraft in the following circumstances:

• Within 8 hours of consuming alcohol — commonly known as the "bottle-to-throttle" rule.
• While their blood alcohol concentration (BAC) is 0.02 or more — that is, the BAC must be below 0.02.
• While under the influence of any psychoactive substance (including prescription or over-the-counter medications) that may impair their ability to safely exercise the privileges of their licence.

Even if 8 hours have elapsed, if the pilot's BAC is still 0.02 or above, or if they are still affected by alcohol, they must not fly. In practice, the effects of alcohol — including hangover effects — can impair performance well beyond the 8-hour minimum. As a general guideline, alcohol is metabolised at approximately one standard drink per hour, but this varies between individuals and is affected by factors such as body weight, food intake, hydration, and overall health. Pilots should allow a generous margin beyond the 8-hour minimum.

Fatigue and General Fitness

Pilots must not fly if impaired by fatigue, illness, injury, or any physical or mental condition that could affect their ability to safely operate the aircraft. Self-assessment using the IMSAFE checklist is a widely recommended practice before every flight:

• I — Illness: Am I suffering from any illness or symptom of illness?
• M — Medication: Am I taking any medication that could impair my performance?
• S — Stress: Am I under psychological or emotional stress that could distract me?
• A — Alcohol: Have I consumed alcohol within the last 8 hours? Is my BAC below 0.02? Am I still feeling any effects?
• F — Fatigue: Am I adequately rested? Have I had sufficient sleep?
• E — Eating/Emotion: Have I eaten adequately? Am I emotionally fit to fly?

Under CASR Part 91, the PIC must be satisfied they are fit to undertake the flight. Factors such as dehydration, hypoglycaemia (low blood sugar), and the effects of recent blood donations, dental procedures, or scuba diving should also be considered. Regarding scuba diving, pilots should generally wait at least 12 hours after a non-decompression dive and at least 24 hours after a decompression dive before flying, to reduce the risk of decompression sickness at altitude.

Medication and Medical Conditions

Many common medications — including antihistamines, sedatives, certain cold and flu remedies, and some pain medications — can cause drowsiness, impaired judgement, or other side effects that are incompatible with safe flying. Pilots must consult a DAME before flying while using any new medication, and must not fly if there is any doubt about whether a medication may impair their performance.

Certain medical conditions and surgical procedures also require grounding periods and DAME clearance before returning to flight duties. When in doubt, seek advice from a DAME before exercising the privileges of your licence.

To operate under the Visual Flight Rules (VFR), pilots must maintain specific Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC). The VMC minima vary depending on the class of airspace, altitude, and whether the flight is conducted by day or night. Understanding these minima is essential for safe VFR operations and is commonly tested in RPL/PPL examinations. The primary regulatory references are the Civil Aviation Safety Regulations (CASR) Part 91 Manual of Standards (MOS), particularly Table 2.07, and AIP ENR 1.7.

Visibility requirements

Flight visibility minima under VFR depend on the altitude band in which you are operating:

• At or above 10,000 ft AMSL: Flight visibility must be at least 8 km.
• Below 10,000 ft AMSL: Flight visibility must be at least 5,000 m (5 km).

Cloud clearance requirements

Cloud clearance requirements depend on both the airspace class and the altitude of the aircraft. These are specified in the CASR Part 91 MOS Table 2.07:

• At or above 10,000 ft AMSL (all airspace): 1,000 ft vertically and 1,500 m horizontally from cloud.
• Above 3,000 ft AMSL or above 1,000 ft AGL (whichever is higher) but below 10,000 ft AMSL — Class C, E, and G airspace: 1,000 ft vertically and 1,500 m horizontally from cloud.
• Above 3,000 ft AMSL or above 1,000 ft AGL (whichever is higher) but below 10,000 ft AMSL — Class D airspace: 1,000 ft vertically and 600 m horizontally from cloud.
• At or below 3,000 ft AMSL or 1,000 ft AGL (whichever is higher) — Class G airspace: Aeroplanes must remain clear of cloud and in sight of ground or water. The flight visibility requirement remains 5,000 m.
• At or below 3,000 ft AMSL or 1,000 ft AGL (whichever is higher) — Class D airspace: 1,000 ft vertically and 600 m horizontally from cloud. There is no reduced "clear of cloud" provision in controlled airspace.

Important: The reduced cloud clearance minima (clear of cloud, in sight of ground or water) in Class G airspace apply at or below 3,000 ft AMSL or 1,000 ft AGL, whichever is the higher. This means if you are flying over terrain that is 2,500 ft AMSL, the 1,000 ft AGL criterion places the boundary at 3,500 ft AMSL — so the reduced minima would apply up to 3,500 ft AMSL in that area, not just 3,000 ft AMSL.

Summary table — VMC minima for VFR flight

Controlled airspace — Class C and Class D

In controlled airspace, VFR flight requires an ATC clearance and compliance with any applicable ATC instructions. The key differences between Class C and Class D airspace for VFR are:

• Class C airspace: VMC minima below 10,000 ft AMSL are 5 km visibility, 1,000 ft vertical and 1,500 m horizontal cloud clearance at all altitudes within that airspace. There is no reduced "clear of cloud" provision.
• Class D airspace: VMC minima below 10,000 ft AMSL are 5 km visibility, 1,000 ft vertical and 600 m horizontal cloud clearance at all altitudes within that airspace. The reduced horizontal distance (600 m instead of 1,500 m) reflects the additional ATC separation services provided. There is no reduced "clear of cloud" provision.

VFR flight in Class A airspace is not permitted in Australia under normal operations. Class A airspace is primarily for IFR, but VFR may be approved under CASR 91.285.

Class E airspace

Class E airspace is controlled airspace, but VFR flights do not require an ATC clearance to enter (unlike Class C and D). However, VMC must be maintained. Cloud clearance requirements in Class E below 10,000 ft AMSL are 1,000 ft vertically and 1,500 m horizontally, with 5 km visibility.

Pilots should be aware that Class E airspace may extend to the surface in some areas (for example, certain instrument approach areas) and that IFR traffic operates in this airspace without guaranteed separation from VFR traffic.

Special VFR (SVFR)

When VMC cannot be maintained in a control zone (CTR), a pilot may request a Special VFR (SVFR) clearance from ATC. Under SVFR, the pilot must remain clear of cloud and in sight of ground or water, with a minimum flight visibility of 1,600 m by day (for aeroplanes). SVFR operations are subject to ATC approval and specific conditions.

Key points about SVFR:

• SVFR is only available within a control zone (CTR).
• The pilot must request the SVFR clearance — ATC cannot initiate it.
• The pilot must remain clear of cloud and in sight of ground or water.
• Minimum flight visibility for aeroplanes is 1,600 m by day.
• SVFR at night has additional requirements and higher minima.
• The pilot remains responsible for terrain and obstacle clearance.

Altimetry and VFR cruising levels

Altimetry rules apply to all VFR flights. Pilots must set the appropriate area QNH on their altimeter to determine altitude accurately. When operating at or below the transition altitude — which is 10,000 ft in Australia — altitude is referenced to AMSL using QNH. Above the transition layer, flight levels are used with the standard pressure setting of 1013.2 hPa.

VFR cruising altitudes are dictated by the magnetic track flown, conforming to the hemispheric rule and the table of cruising levels specified in AIP ENR 1.7. This ensures vertical separation from other VFR and IFR aircraft:

• Magnetic track 000° to 179°: Odd thousands plus 500 ft (e.g., 3,500 ft, 5,500 ft, 7,500 ft).
• Magnetic track 180° to 359°: Even thousands plus 500 ft (e.g., 4,500 ft, 6,500 ft, 8,500 ft).

These hemispheric cruising levels apply to VFR flights operating above 3,000 ft AMSL in level cruising flight. Below 3,000 ft AMSL, pilots are not required to comply with the hemispheric rule but must still maintain adequate terrain clearance and comply with any applicable minimum altitude requirements.

Note: The hemispheric rule does not apply when operating in the circuit area, during climb or descent, or when ATC has assigned a specific altitude. Within controlled airspace, ATC may assign altitudes that differ from the hemispheric table.

VFR minimum heights

In addition to VMC minima, VFR pilots must comply with minimum height requirements under CASR 91.265–91.270. These rules exist to ensure safe clearance from terrain, obstacles, and populated areas, and also to allow sufficient height for a forced landing in the event of engine failure. The minimum height rules differ depending on whether the area is populous or non-populous, and whether the aircraft is an aeroplane or a rotorcraft.

Aeroplanes:

• Over populous areas (cities, towns, or populated areas): Under CASR 91.265, an aeroplane must not fly below 1,000 ft above the highest point of the area within a horizontal radius of 600 m of the aircraft. This 600 m radius is specific to aeroplanes — it provides a larger safety buffer to account for the glide range needed in the event of an engine failure over a populated area.
• Over non-populous areas: Under CASR 91.267, an aeroplane must not fly below 500 ft above the highest feature or obstacle within a horizontal radius of 300 m of the aircraft. This is not simply 500 ft AGL — it is 500 ft above the highest point (including trees, buildings, towers, and other obstacles) within the 300 m radius. Terrain elevation alone may not be sufficient — pilots must account for obstacles rising above the terrain surface.
• Over open water or sparsely populated areas: The same 500 ft above the highest feature or obstacle within a 300 m radius applies. Pilots should exercise caution regarding masts, vessels, and other structures.

Rotorcraft (helicopters):

• Over populous areas: A rotorcraft must not fly below 1,000 ft above the highest point within a horizontal radius of 300 m of the aircraft. Note: 300 m applies to rotorcraft over populous areas, compared to 600 m for aeroplanes. Reduced minima may apply for rotorcraft in certain circumstances under specific approvals.
• Over non-populous areas: A rotorcraft must not fly below 500 ft above the highest feature or obstacle within a horizontal radius of 300 m of the aircraft.

Exceptions to minimum height rules:

• During take-off and landing, and the associated climb-out and approach phases.
• Operations conducted under a specific approval or exemption from CASA (e.g., aerial work, survey, mustering).
• When a forced landing or emergency procedures require descent below the minimum height.
• Training operations conducted in accordance with approved procedures at a licensed or registered aerodrome.

Exam tip: A common exam question tests the difference between the 600 m horizontal radius for aeroplanes over populous areas and the 300 m radius for rotorcraft over populous areas. Remember: aeroplanes = 600 m over populous areas; rotorcraft = 300 m over populous areas. For non-populous areas, both aeroplanes and rotorcraft use a 300 m radius. Also remember that the 500 ft minimum over non-populous areas is measured above the highest feature or obstacle, not simply above ground level.

Day vs night VFR

Night VFR operations have additional requirements beyond those for day VFR. RPL holders are generally not authorised to fly at night. PPL holders may fly at night VFR with appropriate endorsements and training.

Night VFR requires higher VMC minima in some circumstances and additional equipment such as aircraft lighting, attitude instruments, and navigation lights. Refer to CASR Part 91 and the relevant MOS for the complete night VFR requirements.

The rules of the air under Civil Aviation Safety Regulations (CASR) Part 91, Subpart 91.D establish a clear priority hierarchy and right-of-way framework to prevent mid-air collisions. Understanding these rules is essential for RPL/PPL exam success and safe flight operations.

Right-of-Way Priority Hierarchy

CASR Part 91, Subpart 91.D defines the following order of priority. Aircraft higher in this list have right-of-way over those below:

1. An aircraft in distress has right-of-way over all other air traffic.
2. A power-driven heavier-than-air aircraft must give way to airships, gliders, and balloons.
3. An airship must give way to gliders and balloons.
4. A glider must give way to balloons.
5. A power-driven aircraft towing another aircraft or object has right-of-way over all other power-driven aircraft.

Approaching Head-On

When two aircraft are approaching head-on, or approximately so, each pilot must alter heading to the right. This rule applies regardless of aircraft category.

Converging Aircraft

When two aircraft are converging at approximately the same altitude, the aircraft that has the other on its right must give way. The aircraft with right-of-way should maintain its heading and speed.

Overtaking

An overtaking aircraft must keep out of the way of the aircraft being overtaken by altering its heading to the right. The overtaken aircraft has right-of-way and should maintain its heading and speed.

Note: a glider overtaking another glider may alter heading to either the right or the left.

Landing

An aircraft in the process of landing, or on final approach to land, has right-of-way over other aircraft in flight or on the ground. A power-driven aircraft must always give way to a glider on approach, regardless of altitude.

When two or more heavier-than-air aircraft are approaching to land, the aircraft at the lower altitude has right-of-way. However, that aircraft must not take advantage of this rule to cut in front of or overtake another aircraft already on final approach.

Taxiing

Aircraft taxiing on the manoeuvring area must give way to aircraft that are taking off or landing. When two aircraft are taxiing and their paths converge, the aircraft with the other on its right must give way. When taxiing head-on, both aircraft must stop or alter course to the right.

To protect persons and property on the ground, CASA mandates minimum flight altitudes under Civil Aviation Safety Regulations (CASR) Part 91 (Subpart 91.D, Division 91.D.1). These rules apply to all flights except where specific exemptions or approvals are in place. The detailed specifications for minimum heights are set out in the Part 91 Manual of Standards (MOS), particularly Chapter 12.

Minimum height over populous areas

When flying over a city, town, or populous area, an aeroplane must not fly at a height lower than 1,000 ft above the highest point of the area, or the highest obstacle or structure within a horizontal radius of 600 m of the point on the ground or water immediately below the aeroplane (CASR 91.265 / Part 91 MOS 12.01). This is a critical distinction — the 1,000 ft is measured above the highest feature within that 600 m radius, not simply 1,000 ft above the ground directly beneath the aircraft. For example, if there is a tall communications tower within 600 m of the aircraft's position, the minimum height is 1,000 ft above the top of that tower.

This is frequently tested in the CASA exam. The 600 m horizontal radius applies to aeroplanes over populous areas. For helicopters over populous areas, the horizontal radius is 300 m (Part 91 MOS 12.01). Exam trap: do not confuse the 600 m radius (aeroplanes over populous areas) with the 300 m radius (helicopters over populous areas, or aeroplanes over non-populous areas).

Minimum height over non-populous areas

Over any area that is not a city, town, or populous area, the minimum height for an aeroplane is 500 ft above ground level (AGL) or above the highest obstacle or structure within a horizontal radius of 300 m from the aircraft (CASR 91.267 / Part 91 MOS 12.02). The pilot must ensure that in the event of an engine failure, the aircraft can be landed without creating a hazard to persons or property on the ground.

For helicopters over non-populous areas, the minimum height is 500 ft AGL or above the highest obstacle within a horizontal radius as specified in the MOS.

Summary of minimum heights

Exceptions to minimum height rules

The minimum height rules do not apply in all circumstances. Recognised exceptions include:

• Aircraft that are taking off or landing at an aerodrome, or conducting an approach or departure procedure in accordance with published procedures.
• Pilots who hold specific approvals or ratings for low-level operations (e.g., aerial application pilots, low-level training authorisations under Part 61).
• Operations conducted under a specific CASA approval, exemption, or instrument (e.g., aerial survey, aerial mustering, search and rescue operations).
• Forced landings or genuine emergency situations — the pilot in command has the authority to deviate from any rule to the extent necessary to deal with the emergency.
• Operations by emergency services aircraft (e.g., air ambulance, police) under appropriate authorisations.

Populous area definition

A populous area is not limited to towns and cities. It includes any area where people are likely to be present or gathered, such as beaches, parks, sporting events, caravan parks, outdoor festivals, school grounds, markets, or camping areas. The definition is deliberately broad and pilots must exercise sound judgement when determining whether an area is populous.

An area can be populous at certain times and not at others — for example, a beach may be populous on a summer weekend but not at dawn in winter. When in doubt, treat the area as populous and apply the 1,000 ft minimum.

Additional safety restrictions

Beyond the standard minimum height rules, CASR Part 91 imposes a number of additional safety restrictions relevant to RPL and PPL students.

• Aerobatic flight: Aerobatic manoeuvres must not be performed over a populous area or over a public gathering. Aerobatics must not be conducted below 3,000 ft AGL for solo aerobatic practice flights unless a lower altitude is specifically approved (e.g., under a low-level aerobatic rating or approval). For aerobatic training with an instructor, the minimum altitude may differ in accordance with the training organisation's approvals. Aerobatic flight must not be performed in cloud, at night (unless specifically approved), or in a control zone without ATC clearance.
• Flying over public gatherings: Flying over organised public gatherings, outdoor race meetings, or large assemblies of people is generally prohibited unless the flight is conducted at or above the prescribed minimum heights and in the course of ordinary navigation, or unless a specific CASA approval has been obtained. Pilots conducting aerial display flights over or near public gatherings must hold an approved aerial display authorisation issued by CASA. Display organisers must also obtain the necessary approvals and establish appropriate safety parameters.
• Dropping things from aircraft (CASR 91.190): Under CASR 91.190, dropping or discharging any article or substance from an aircraft is only permitted if it does not create a hazard to persons or property on the ground or water, or if it is done in accordance with an approval or operational requirement (e.g., aerial application operations under Part 137, approved parachute operations, firefighting operations, or search and rescue supply drops). Jettisoning of fuel in an emergency is permitted if necessary for the safety of the aircraft.
• Towing and external loads: Specific rules and approvals apply to towing operations (e.g., glider towing, banner towing) and the carriage of external loads, particularly over populous areas. These operations require appropriate aircraft certification, pilot qualifications, and operational approvals.
• Formation flying: Formation flight requires the agreement of all pilots in command involved. Formation flight over populous areas or public gatherings requires additional approvals and risk management.

Pilot responsibility

Regardless of minimum height rules, the pilot in command (PIC) must always ensure the aircraft is operated at a height from which, in the event of an engine failure or other emergency, a safe landing can be made without creating a hazard to persons or property on the surface. This principle underpins all minimum height considerations and is a fundamental responsibility of every pilot.

During flight planning and in-flight decision making, pilots should continuously assess suitable forced-landing areas and maintain sufficient height to reach them. Over congested or populous areas, this may require flying well above the regulatory minimums to ensure an adequate glide range to a suitable landing area.

Practical exam tips

The following points are frequently tested in the CASA RPL and PPL examinations. Review these carefully before sitting your exam.

• Remember the key radius values: 600 m for aeroplanes over populous areas, 300 m for helicopters over populous areas, and 300 m for aeroplanes over non-populous areas.
• The minimum height is measured above the highest obstacle or feature within the applicable radius, not above the general terrain directly below the aircraft.
• Always consider whether an area might be populous even if it is rural — temporary gatherings, camping areas, and recreational sites can all qualify.
• Know the difference between the old CAR references and the current CASR Part 91 references — the exam uses current legislation. The rule on dropping things from aircraft is now CASR 91.190 (not the former CAR 92).
• The minimum height rules are found in CASR Part 91, Subpart 91.D, Division 91.D.1 — be aware of the correct legislative location for exam citation questions.

This section covers the passenger safety briefing requirements, seatbelt rules under Civil Aviation Safety Regulations (CASR) Part 91, search and rescue (SAR) procedures, ATC light signals, emergency equipment, and distress and urgency communications. These topics are frequently tested in the CASA RPL and PPL exams, so pay close attention to the key distinctions — particularly the difference between a SARWATCH and a Flight Note.

Passenger Safety Briefing

The pilot in command (PIC) must ensure that all passengers receive a safety briefing before flight. This briefing should cover seatbelt operation, emergency exits, location and use of safety equipment (fire extinguisher, first aid kit, life jackets if applicable), and any specific procedures relevant to the aircraft type.

Seatbelt Requirements

Seatbelt requirements under CASR Part 91 apply to all crew and passengers. The rules differ depending on whether you are a passenger or the sole pilot:

• All occupants (crew and passengers): Must wear seatbelts during taxi, take-off, and landing.
• Passengers: Must also wear seatbelts whenever directed by the PIC, whenever the seatbelt sign is illuminated, and during turbulence or any other time the PIC considers it necessary for safety.
• Single-pilot aeroplane (pilot): The pilot of a single-pilot aeroplane must wear a seatbelt at all times during flight. Under CASR Part 91 and the Part 1 Dictionary, flight begins when the aircraft first moves under its own power for the purpose of taking off and ends when it comes to rest after landing. This means the seatbelt requirement encompasses taxi, take-off, all phases of flight, landing, and taxi to the parking position.
• Shoulder harnesses: Where fitted, shoulder harnesses must be worn during take-off and landing, and are recommended at all times.

Emergency Authority of the PIC

In an emergency, the PIC is authorised under CASR Part 91 to deviate from any rule or procedure to the extent necessary to deal with the emergency and ensure the safety of the aircraft and persons on board. The PIC must, if requested, submit a written report to CASA regarding any such deviation.

SAR Watch and Flight Notifications

There are two distinct mechanisms for ensuring search and rescue (SAR) protection for a flight. Understanding the difference between a SARWATCH (via Airservices Australia) and a Flight Note (left with a responsible person) is critical for CASA exams.

SARWATCH and SARTIME

A SARWATCH is a search and rescue watch maintained by Airservices Australia through CENSAR — the Centralised SAR facility — or ATC. A SARWATCH is activated when a pilot lodges a flight plan or flight notification (SARWATCH) with Airservices Australia, for example via NAIPS or by radio with a briefing office or ATC unit.

• SARTIME: As part of a flight notification (SARWATCH) lodged with Airservices Australia, the pilot nominates a SARTIME — this is the time by which, if no arrival report or amended SARTIME has been received, Airservices Australia will initiate SAR action.
• Pilot's responsibility: It is critical that the pilot either cancels the SARWATCH (by sending an arrival report) or extends the SARTIME before it expires. Failure to do so will trigger search and rescue operations, diverting significant resources unnecessarily.
• Extending SARTIME: If a flight is delayed or diverted, the pilot must contact Airservices Australia (for example, via radio, telephone, or through ATC or Flight Information Service) to amend or extend the SARTIME before the original SARTIME expires.
• VFR flights in controlled airspace: Flights operating under a flight plan in controlled airspace have SAR watch provided automatically by ATC as part of their traffic management.
• VFR flights outside controlled airspace: Pilots operating VFR outside controlled airspace who wish to have a SARWATCH from Airservices must lodge a flight notification (SARWATCH) and nominate a SARTIME. This is done via NAIPS or by contacting a briefing office.

Flight Note (Responsible Person)

A Flight Note is an alternative SAR arrangement used when a pilot does not lodge a SARWATCH with Airservices Australia. Instead of lodging with Airservices, the pilot leaves a Flight Note with a responsible person — for example, a family member, friend, flying school operator, or aerodrome operator.

• SAR Action Time: The Flight Note includes a SAR Action Time — this is the time by which, if the responsible person has not heard from the pilot, they should contact emergency services (telephone 000) or the Australian Maritime Safety Authority (AMSA) Rescue Coordination Centre (RCC) to report the aircraft as overdue and initiate SAR action.
• Contents of a Flight Note: The Flight Note should include the aircraft registration, pilot's name, number of persons on board, route of flight, departure and destination aerodromes, estimated time of arrival, the nominated SAR Action Time, and the pilot's contact details.
• Pilot's responsibility: The pilot must contact the responsible person before the SAR Action Time expires to advise of safe arrival or to extend the SAR Action Time. If the pilot fails to make contact, the responsible person will — and must — initiate a SAR alert.

Key Exam Distinction: SARTIME vs Flight Note

This is a common exam trap in CASA PPL and CPL exams. Make sure you know the difference between these two SAR mechanisms before sitting your exam.

• SARTIME is lodged with and managed by Airservices Australia (CENSAR/ATC). It is part of a formal flight notification (SARWATCH). Airservices will initiate SAR if the SARTIME expires without cancellation.
• A Flight Note is left with a responsible person and includes a SAR Action Time. The responsible person is responsible for contacting emergency services if the SAR Action Time expires without word from the pilot.
• You do not lodge a SARTIME or SARWATCH with a responsible person — you leave a Flight Note with a SAR Action Time.
• Both methods provide SAR protection, but through different channels and with different procedures.

Reference: AIP ENR 1.10 — Search and Rescue.

ATC Light Signals

Standard visual light signals must be understood by all pilots, as they are critical for communication during radio failure or when operating at a non-towered aerodrome. This is frequently tested in the CASA exam. Key signals include:

• Steady green: Cleared to land (airborne) / Cleared for take-off (on ground).
• Steady red: Give way to other aircraft and continue circling (airborne) / Stop (on ground).
• Green flashes: Return for landing (airborne) / Cleared to taxi (on ground).
• Red flashes: Aerodrome unsafe, do not land (airborne) / Taxi clear of landing area in use (on ground).
• White flashes: Land at this aerodrome and proceed to apron (airborne) / Return to starting point on aerodrome (on ground).
• Red pyrotechnic (flare): Do not land; wait for permission (airborne and on ground).

Pilots should acknowledge light signals by rocking their wings in flight, or by moving the ailerons or rudder on the ground during the day. At night, acknowledgement is made by flashing the landing light or navigation lights.

Emergency Equipment

Pilots should ensure the following equipment is serviceable and accessible before flight. Each item plays a specific role in passenger safety and emergency preparedness.

• Fire extinguisher: Must be serviceable and within its inspection date.
• First aid kit: Must be stocked and accessible to the PIC and passengers.
• Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT): Must be fitted and operational as required by CASR Part 91.
• Life jackets and life rafts: Required when operating over water beyond gliding distance from shore.

Distress and Urgency Procedures

Pilots must understand the standard distress and urgency communication procedures. The correct call and transponder code for each situation is frequently tested in the CASA exam.

• Distress (MAYDAY): Used when the aircraft or persons on board are in grave and imminent danger and require immediate assistance. The call is "MAYDAY, MAYDAY, MAYDAY" on the current frequency or on 121.5 MHz (emergency frequency). Set the transponder to 7700 for emergency.
• Urgency (PAN PAN): Used when the safety of the aircraft or persons on board is threatened but immediate assistance is not yet required. The call is "PAN PAN, PAN PAN, PAN PAN".
• Transponder code 7600: Communication failure.
• Transponder code 7500: Unlawful interference.

Related Resources

• Regulations
• How to Read a TAF
• VFR Flight Rules Blog