Aviation Glossary
Every aviation term and concept you need to know for the CASA RPL and PPL exams. Definitions sourced from official study materials and verified for accuracy.
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A
Advection Fog
Advection fog forms when a mass of warm, moist air is transported (advected) horizontally over a colder surface, cooling the air to its dew point. Unlike radiation fog, it can form during the day or night and often requires moderate winds to move the air mass over the cold surface. A change in wind direction or air mass is typically required for it to clear.
meteorologyAerodrome Frequency Response Unit (AFRU)
An Aerodrome Frequency Response Unit (AFRU) is a device installed at non-controlled aerodromes that provides an automatic response to radio transmissions over two seconds long. It helps improve safety by confirming the operation of the aircraft's transmitter and receiver, and verifying that the correct frequency is selected.
navigationAerodynamic Stall
An aerodynamic stall is a condition where an aerofoil exceeds its critical angle of attack, resulting in a sudden reduction in lift. This occurs because the smooth boundary layer separates from the upper surface of the wing, creating chaotic, turbulent airflow.
aerodynamicsAir Defence Identification Zone (ADIZ)
An Air Defence Identification Zone (ADIZ) is an area of airspace over land or water within which the identification, location, and control of aircraft is required in the interest of national security. Australia maintains an ADIZ with specific entry and operating procedures.
regulationsAirborne Collision Avoidance System
An Airborne Collision Avoidance System (ACAS) is an aircraft system that operates independently of ground-based equipment to provide advice to the pilot on potential conflicting aircraft using transponder signals. Pilots receive resolution advisories (RAs) to alter their flight path to avoid collisions. Under CASR Part 91, the specific operational requirements for ACAS II use are currently reserved (MOS 26.27–26.29), though the requirement to follow RAs is referenced in MOS 11.06.
instrumentsAircraft Flight Manual (AFM)
An Aircraft Flight Manual (AFM) is a legal document specific to an individual aircraft that contains the operating limitations, normal and emergency procedures, and performance data approved by CASA. Pilots are legally required to operate the aircraft in accordance with the instructions and limitations specified within it at all times during the operation of the aircraft.
regulationsAirspeed Indicator (ASI)
The Airspeed Indicator (ASI) is a primary flight instrument that measures the pressure difference between pitot (dynamic) and static air to determine the aircraft's indicated airspeed. A blockage of the pitot tube or static port will cause the ASI to provide inaccurate or misleading readings. Understanding the effect of each blockage type is essential for safe flight operations.
instrumentsAirways Clearance
An airways clearance is an authorisation issued by Air Traffic Control (ATC) allowing an aircraft to proceed under specified conditions within controlled airspace. Pilots must obtain and adhere strictly to this clearance to maintain separation from other traffic.
flight-rulesAlternate Aerodrome
An alternate aerodrome is an aerodrome to which an aircraft may proceed when it becomes impossible or inadvisable to proceed to or land at the intended destination. It must be operational, meet aircraft performance requirements, and have the necessary services available at the expected time of use.
navigationAlternate Minima
Alternate minima are the specific weather criteria — primarily minimum cloud ceiling height and visibility — required at an aerodrome for it to be legally nominated as a destination alternate. If the forecast at the intended destination meets conditions requiring an alternate, the planned alternate aerodrome must meet these minima to be a valid nomination.
meteorologyAlternator
An alternator is an engine-driven electrical generator that produces alternating current, which is converted to direct current to power the aircraft's electrical systems and charge the battery. An in-flight alternator failure is typically indicated by a continuous battery discharge shown as a left deflection on a left-zero ammeter, or a zero reading on a centre-zero ammeter during normal flight.
enginesAltimeter
The altimeter is a barometric flight instrument that measures static pressure to indicate the aircraft's height above a selected datum. The subscale must be set correctly to ensure accurate height readings, as changes in atmospheric temperature and pressure affect its accuracy. A blocked static source will cause the altimeter to read a constant height regardless of actual climbs or descents.
instrumentsAnabatic Wind
An anabatic wind is a localised wind that blows up a steep slope or mountainside, driven by solar heating of the terrain. The sun warms the slope, which in turn warms the adjacent air, causing it to become less dense and rise. This upslope flow is a daytime phenomenon and is the opposite of a katabatic wind.
meteorologyAngle of Attack
The angle of attack is the angle between the chord line of an aerofoil and the relative airflow. It is a primary factor in determining the amount of lift and drag produced by a wing, and exceeding the critical angle of attack will result in an aerodynamic stall.
aerodynamicsAngle of Incidence
The angle of incidence is the angle between the chord line of a wing and the longitudinal axis of the aeroplane. Unlike the angle of attack, which changes dynamically during flight, the angle of incidence is a fixed design feature built into the aircraft structure by the manufacturer. It affects the aircraft's visibility over the nose and its standard cruising pitch attitude.
aerodynamicsArea QNH
Area QNH is an altimeter setting forecast by the Bureau of Meteorology that is within ±5 hPa of the actual QNH for any location within a specified geographical area. It is used to maintain vertical separation when flying below the transition altitude and a local QNH is not available. Area QNH is a forecast value and may differ slightly from the actual QNH at a given location.
meteorologyArm
An arm is the horizontal distance from the reference datum to the centre of gravity of a specific item or load station. The arm is used in conjunction with weight to calculate the moment of any load placed in the aircraft. Distances aft of the datum are typically expressed as positive values, while distances forward of the datum are typically expressed as negative values.
loadingArtificial Horizon
The artificial horizon is a primary gyroscopic flight instrument that displays the aircraft's pitch and roll attitude relative to the horizon. It typically relies on a vacuum or electrical power source to spin its internal gyroscope. A loss of suction will cause the gyroscope to spool down and provide false pitch and bank indications.
instrumentsAutokinetic Illusion
The autokinetic illusion is a visual illusion occurring at night where a stationary point of light in a dark, featureless background appears to move. This occurs because the eye lacks other visual references to anchor the light's position. Pilots may inappropriately alter the aircraft's attitude in an attempt to follow or avoid the falsely moving light.
human-factorsAutomatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS)
The Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) is the continuous and repetitive broadcast of current, routine operational information to arriving and departing aircraft. It includes essential data such as the runway in use, wind, visibility, cloud base, temperature, and QNH. Pilots must acknowledge receipt of the current ATIS code on first contact with ATC.
flight-rulesB
Balanced Field Length
Balanced field length is a condition where the Take-off Distance Required (TODR) to clear a specified obstacle following an engine failure at decision speed (V1) is exactly equal to the Accelerate-Stop Distance Required (ASDR). It is used to optimise take-off weight for a given runway length, ensuring neither the go nor the stop case is more limiting than the other.
performanceBasic Class 2 Medical Certificate
A Basic Class 2 Medical Certificate is an alternative to a full Class 2 medical certificate designed for private day VFR operations below 10,000 ft AMSL. It carries specific operational restrictions compared to a standard Class 2 medical and follows the commercial motor vehicle driver medical standard (Austroads).
regulationsBasic Empty Weight
Basic empty weight is the weight of a standard aircraft including all permanently installed equipment, unusable fuel, and full operating fluids such as engine oil. It serves as the baseline figure in loading calculations before adding the weight of the pilot, passengers, baggage, and usable fuel. This figure is unique to each specific aircraft and must be verified from the current weight and balance data.
loadingBernoulli's Theorem
Bernoulli's theorem states that in a steady, incompressible fluid flow, an increase in fluid velocity results in a decrease in static pressure. In aviation, this explains how air accelerating over the curved upper surface of an aerofoil creates a region of lower static pressure above the wing compared to the lower surface, contributing to lift. Bernoulli's principle works in conjunction with Newton's Third Law — the reaction force from air deflected downward — to fully explain total lift production.
aerodynamicsBest Rate of Climb
Best rate of climb is the specific airspeed (VY) at which an aircraft gains the greatest amount of altitude in a given amount of time. It is determined by the point on the power curve where the excess power available over power required is at a maximum.
performanceBoundary Layer
The boundary layer is the thin layer of air immediately adjacent to the surface of an aerofoil where airflow is slowed due to skin friction. It transitions from smooth, orderly laminar flow near the leading edge to more chaotic turbulent flow further aft.
aerodynamicsBuys Ballot's Law
Buys Ballot's Law is a meteorological rule relating wind direction to the distribution of atmospheric pressure. In the Southern Hemisphere, if you stand with your back to the wind, the area of lower atmospheric pressure will be to your right. This is a consequence of the Coriolis effect, which causes wind to flow clockwise around low-pressure systems in the Southern Hemisphere.
meteorologyC
Camber
Camber refers to the curvature of the mean camber line of an aerofoil — the line drawn equidistant between the upper and lower surfaces from leading edge to trailing edge. A positively cambered aerofoil has an asymmetric profile that generates lift even at zero angle of attack, whereas a symmetrical aerofoil has zero camber and produces no lift at zero angle of attack. The degree of camber influences the pressure distribution over the wing and therefore the lift produced.
aerodynamicsCarbon Monoxide Poisoning
Carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning is a dangerous condition caused by inhaling CO, an odourless, colourless gas that can enter the cockpit through engine exhaust leaks, particularly from defective cabin heater systems. CO binds to haemoglobin approximately 250 times more strongly than oxygen, severely reducing the blood's oxygen-carrying capacity.
human-factorsCarburettor Heat
Carburettor heat is a system that introduces heated air into the engine's carburettor to prevent or clear ice formation, such as throttle ice or fuel evaporation ice. Because the heated air is less dense, applying carburettor heat during take-off or in flight reduces the engine's power output (RPM) and decreases climb performance.
enginesCarburettor Icing
Carburettor icing occurs when the temperature of air entering the carburettor drops sufficiently to condense water vapour, causing ice to build up on the butterfly valve and venturi walls. It can occur in clear air with no visible moisture and an outside air temperature of up to 38°C, particularly at partial power settings. The risk is significantly increased during descent when partial power is used.
enginesCarriage of Infants and Children
Carriage of infants and children refers to the specific aviation regulations detailing how infants and children must be seated and restrained during flight. Two children may occupy one seat if their combined weight does not exceed 77 kg. An infant, defined as a child under 2 years of age, must be held by an adult or secured in an approved child restraint.
regulationsCentre of Gravity (CG)
The centre of gravity (CG) is the theoretical point at which the entire weight of the aircraft is assumed to be concentrated. For safe and stable flight, this point must fall within a specific range established by the aircraft manufacturer.
loadingCentre of Pressure
The centre of pressure is the theoretical point on an aerofoil's chord line where the total sum of all aerodynamic pressure forces — both lift and drag — is considered to act. As the angle of attack increases during normal flight, the centre of pressure typically moves forward along the chord line.
aerodynamicsCertificate of Airworthiness
A Certificate of Airworthiness is a document issued by CASA or an authorised person certifying that an aircraft meets its approved type design and is in a condition for safe operation. An aircraft must have a valid Certificate of Airworthiness (or a special flight permit) before it may legally commence a flight, and the document must be carried on board the aircraft for flights that begin or end outside Australian territory (CASR 91.115). For domestic flights, it must exist and be current but is not required to be physically carried on board.
regulationsCertificate of Registration
A Certificate of Registration is an official document that records the nationality, registration mark, and ownership details of an aircraft. Before an Australian aircraft may fly, the pilot in command (PIC) must ensure it is properly registered under CASR Part 47, and the Certificate of Registration must be carried on board the aircraft during all flight operations.
regulationsCertified Air/Ground Radio Service (CA/GRS)
Certified Air/Ground Radio Service (CA/GRS) is an aerodrome-based radio information service operated at non-controlled aerodromes within published hours. It provides pilots with operational information relevant to the aerodrome but does not provide any separation services. Pilots retain full authority and responsibility for the acceptance and use of the information provided.
flight-rulesClear Airframe Ice
Clear airframe ice is a severe form of airframe icing characterised by a smooth, glossy, and transparent layer of ice. It forms when large supercooled water droplets strike the aircraft and spread rearward over the surface before freezing completely. It is considered the most dangerous form of airframe icing because it is heavy, difficult to see, and significantly alters the aerodynamic profile of the aerofoil.
meteorologyClearance Limit
A clearance limit is the specific point to which an aircraft is granted an ATC clearance. If an aircraft is cleared only to an intermediate point, a further clearance must be obtained before proceeding beyond it in controlled airspace. When there is any change to the clearance limit, a completely new clearance will be issued.
flight-rulesClimb Weight Limit
The climb weight limit is the maximum take-off or landing weight restricted by the requirement to achieve a specific minimum climb gradient. It ensures the aircraft can safely clear terrain and obstacles, particularly after an engine failure or during a missed approach. This limit takes precedence over other weight limits when it is the most restrictive.
performanceCommon Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF)
A Common Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF) is a designated radio frequency on which pilots make positional broadcasts when operating in the vicinity of a non-controlled aerodrome. It is used to maintain situational awareness and support traffic de-confliction among airspace users. Mandatory radio carriage and use is required at designated, certified, or military aerodromes.
flight-rulesCommunity Service Flight (CSF)
A Community Service Flight (CSF) is a flight coordinated by a charitable entity to transport a patient and their support persons for non-emergency medical treatment without any charge. These flights have specific pilot experience and operational requirements.
flight-rulesCompass Deviation
Compass deviation is the error induced in a direct-reading magnetic compass caused by local magnetic fields within the aircraft, such as those from avionics, wiring, and metal engine components. Deviation differs from magnetic variation in that it is unique to each individual aircraft and varies depending on the heading being flown. Pilots use a compass correction card mounted near the instrument to adjust their magnetic heading to a compass heading.
navigationConstant Speed Unit (CSU)
A Constant Speed Unit (CSU) is a governor mechanism that automatically adjusts a variable-pitch propeller's blade angle to maintain a selected engine RPM. It uses oil pressure to change the pitch, optimising the propeller's aerodynamic efficiency across different phases of flight.
enginesContingency Fuel
Contingency fuel is the amount of fuel required to compensate for unforeseen factors that could influence fuel consumption to the destination aerodrome. These factors include deviations from forecast meteorological conditions, extended delays, and deviations from planned routings.
flight-rulesControlled Airspace
Controlled airspace is airspace of defined dimensions within which air traffic control services are provided to specific classes of flights. Pilots generally require an airways clearance to enter, operate in, or depart from these areas, and must maintain specific tracking tolerances.
regulationsCylinder Head Temperature (CHT)
Cylinder Head Temperature (CHT) is an engine instrument that measures the temperature of the engine's cylinder heads, providing a direct indication of engine cooling efficiency. Pilots must monitor CHT to ensure the engine remains within its structural thermal limits, particularly during prolonged climbs.
enginesD
Danger Area
A Danger Area is an airspace of defined dimensions within which activities dangerous to the flight of aircraft may exist at specified times. Pilots may fly through a Danger Area without an approval, provided they are aware of the hazards and take appropriate precautions.
regulationsDark Adaptation
Dark adaptation is the physiological process by which the eyes adjust to low-light conditions to improve night vision. This process takes approximately 30 minutes to complete and can be instantly degraded by exposure to bright white light, requiring the adaptation process to restart. Pilots should use red or dim cockpit lighting at night to protect their dark adaptation.
human-factorsDatum
A datum is an imaginary vertical plane or reference line established by the aircraft manufacturer from which all horizontal distances are measured for balance purposes. All stations and arms are determined relative to this fixed reference point. The datum location varies by aircraft type and may be positioned at the nose, the firewall, or the leading edge of the wing.
loadingDead Reckoning
Dead reckoning is the navigational process of calculating an aircraft's current position by starting from a previously known position (a fix) and advancing that position based on estimated speeds, elapsed time, and course steered. It relies on accurate heading, true airspeed, and wind velocity.
navigationDehydration
Dehydration is the depletion of bodily fluids that can significantly impair a pilot's cognitive function, reaction time, and overall physical performance. In aviation, it is often exacerbated by hot cockpits, high altitudes, and the diuretic effects of alcohol or caffeine. Maintaining adequate fluid intake is a crucial element of pilot fitness.
human-factorsDensity Altitude
Density altitude is the altitude in the standard atmosphere corresponding to a particular value of air density. It is determined by applying an ambient temperature correction to the pressure altitude. A higher density altitude results in a decrease in air density, which markedly reduces engine power output and degrades aircraft take-off and climb performance.
performanceDetonation
Detonation is an uncontrolled, explosive ignition of the fuel-air mixture within an engine cylinder. It is often caused by using a fuel grade lower than specified, or by the improper use of mixture control combined with high manifold pressure and low RPM.
enginesDew Point
The dew point is the temperature to which air must be cooled, at constant pressure, for it to become fully saturated with water vapour. When the ambient air temperature cools to match the dew point, condensation occurs, often leading to the formation of cloud, fog, or dew. A close spread between air temperature and dew point indicates a high probability of fog or low cloud formation.
meteorologyDirect Reading Magnetic Compass
The direct reading magnetic compass is an instrument that relies on the Earth's magnetic field to indicate aircraft heading. It features a fluid-filled chamber to dampen oscillations, but is subject to turning and acceleration errors caused by the pendulosity of the magnet system. It serves as the primary reference for aligning the directional indicator.
instrumentsDirectional Indicator
The directional indicator is a gyroscopic flight instrument designed to provide stable heading information without the oscillating errors common to a magnetic compass. It must be periodically synchronised with the magnetic compass due to apparent wander and gyroscopic drift. Unlike the magnetic compass, the directional indicator is unaffected by turning and acceleration errors.
instrumentsDistance Measuring Equipment (DME)
Distance measuring equipment (DME) is a transponder-based radio navigation technology that measures the slant range distance between an aircraft and a ground station by timing the propagation delay of UHF radio signals. It is often paired with a VOR to provide both bearing and distance for a precise position fix.
navigationE
Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT)
An Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT) is a radio transmitter device designed to broadcast a distress signal on 121.5 MHz and 406 MHz in the event of an aircraft accident. ELTs can be automatic (activating on impact) or survival (portable) types, assisting search and rescue services in locating downed aircraft.
instrumentsEmpty Field Myopia
Empty field myopia is a visual condition where the human eye naturally rests at a focal distance of approximately 1–2 m when looking into a featureless environment, such as a cloudless sky, dark night, or over open water. This resting focus severely impairs a pilot's ability to spot distant aircraft. It can be mitigated by actively scanning and consciously focusing on distant objects or the horizon.
human-factorsEqui-time Point (ETP)
The equi-time point (ETP) is a calculated geographical point along a flight route where the time required to continue to the destination is exactly equal to the time required to return to the departure point. It is calculated using the planned track, true airspeed, and forecast wind components.
navigationEstimated Off Blocks Time (EOBT)
The Estimated Off Blocks Time (EOBT) is the estimated time at which the aircraft will commence movement associated with departure. This must be entered as a four-figure UTC time for every flight stage when submitting a flight notification.
flight-rulesEustachian Tube
The Eustachian tube is a narrow passage connecting the middle ear to the back of the throat, responsible for equalising pressure between the middle ear and the outside atmosphere. During climbs and descents, atmospheric pressure changes require this tube to open, allowing trapped gases to equalise. If blocked by a cold or infection, it can lead to severe pain and barotrauma.
human-factorsExhaust Gas Temperature (EGT)
Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) is an engine instrument that measures the temperature of exhaust gases as they leave the cylinders. It is primarily used by the pilot to accurately adjust the mixture control to achieve specific power or fuel economy settings during the cruise phase of flight. EGT can also help diagnose mixture, ignition, or combustion abnormalities.
enginesF
Final Reserve Fuel
Final reserve fuel is the calculated amount of fuel required to fly an aircraft at 1,500 ft above aerodrome elevation in ISA conditions for a specified period at the end of a flight. For small aeroplanes under 5,700 kg flying VFR by day, this is 30 minutes, whereas for VFR by night or IFR, it is 45 minutes.
regulationsFlicker Vertigo
Flicker vertigo is an uncomfortable physiological reaction and potential spatial disorientation caused by exposure to a flickering light source. In aviation, it most commonly occurs from sunlight flashing through a slow-turning propeller or helicopter rotor blades. It can cause nausea, dizziness, or in severe cases, incapacitation.
human-factorsFlight Data Recorder
A flight data recorder (FDR) is a device mandated on certain aircraft, typically turbine-powered aircraft over 5,700 kg, that continuously records aircraft performance and flight parameters. It must operate continuously from the time the aircraft first begins moving under its own power until the flight terminates.
regulationsFlight Information Service (FIS)
A Flight Information Service (FIS) is a service provided by Air Traffic Services (ATS) designed to give pilots advice and information essential for the safe and efficient conduct of flights, including hazard alerts and weather updates. It is available on request to VFR flights operating in Class E and G airspace.
flight-rulesFlight Level
A flight level is an altitude expressed in hundreds of feet, indicated on an altimeter set to the standard atmospheric pressure datum of 1013.2 hPa. Flight levels are used above the transition altitude to ensure all aircraft use a uniform pressure reference for vertical separation.
instrumentsFlight Note
A flight note is a document detailing a proposed flight's route, timings, and aircraft details, left with a responsible adult who can notify search and rescue authorities if the aircraft becomes overdue. It serves as an alternative to submitting a formal flight plan or SARTIME to Airservices Australia.
flight-rulesFlight Notification
A flight notification is a formal submission of flight details to Airservices Australia — via a flight plan or SARTIME — prior to departure. A flight plan is mandatory for IFR flights and VFR flights entering controlled airspace, while a SARTIME may be lodged for cross-country VFR flights outside controlled airspace to establish a search and rescue action time. Both provide search and rescue authorities with essential information including aircraft details, route, endurance, and persons on board in the event of an overdue or missing aircraft.
flight-rulesFloor Loading Limits
Floor loading limits are the maximum allowable weight that can be safely placed on a specific area of the aircraft's floor, usually expressed in kilograms per square metre (kg/m²). Adhering to these limits prevents structural damage or overstressing of the aircraft floor when carrying heavy cargo.
loadingForm Drag
Form drag is a type of parasite drag caused by the physical shape and frontal area of an aircraft pushing through the air. Bulky or unstreamlined shapes create a larger pressure differential between the front and rear of the object, which significantly increases this drag.
aerodynamicsFuel Injection System
A fuel injection system is an engine fuel delivery system that introduces fuel directly into the cylinders or intake manifold instead of using a carburettor. While these systems are less susceptible to fuel evaporation ice and throttle ice, they can be more prone to vapour lock — where fuel in lines running over the hot engine vaporises after shutdown — and can make hot starts more difficult.
enginesG
Global Navigation Satellite System
A Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) is a worldwide satellite-based radio navigation system that provides highly accurate position fixing, track guidance, and situational awareness. For IFR and advanced VFR use, the receiver must continuously monitor system integrity through Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM).
navigationGraphical Area Forecast (GAF)
A Graphical Area Forecast (GAF) is a domestic weather forecast issued for aircraft operations at or below 10,000 ft AMSL. It comprises an image depicting weather areas labelled with alpha characters and a supporting table detailing surface visibility, weather, cloud, icing, turbulence, and freezing level.
meteorologyGraveyard Spiral
A graveyard spiral is an insidious sensory illusion where a pilot in a prolonged coordinated turn ceases to feel the turning sensation as the fluid in the inner ear stabilises to the new rate of turn. Upon levelling the wings, the pilot experiences a false sensation of turning in the opposite direction and may inadvertently re-enter the original descending turn. If flight instruments are ignored, this can lead to a tightening spiral dive and ground impact.
human-factorsGround Effect
Ground effect is an aerodynamic phenomenon that occurs when an aircraft operates very close to the ground, resulting in an effective increase in lift and a decrease in induced drag. On approach, ground effect can prolong the float and cause the aircraft to balloon.
aerodynamicsH
Holding Fuel
Holding fuel is the amount of fuel an aircraft requires to fly for a specified period of anticipated holding, taking into account the operating conditions. It is calculated using the established holding fuel consumption rate for the aircraft under the anticipated meteorological conditions.
regulationsHot Fuelling
Hot fuelling is the process of fuelling an aircraft while its engine is running. Under CASR Part 91, this hazardous activity is strictly regulated, generally restricted to turbine-engine aircraft, and requires adherence to specific procedures detailed in the aircraft flight manual.
regulationsHyperventilation
Hyperventilation is a condition caused by breathing excessively fast or deeply, resulting in too much carbon dioxide (CO₂) being exhaled and blood CO₂ levels dropping — a state known as hypocapnia. This causes blood vessels to constrict and blood pH to become alkaline, producing symptoms that can mimic or be confused with hypoxia.
human-factorsHypoxia
Hypoxia is a condition resulting from an inadequate supply of oxygen to the body's tissues, typically caused by decreasing atmospheric pressure at altitude. Symptoms include a lack of self-criticism, overconfidence, a false sense of security, cyanosis (blue colouration of the lips and fingernails), and tingling sensations.
human-factorsI
Immediately Reportable Matter (IRM)
An Immediately Reportable Matter (IRM) is an accident or serious incident that affects the safety of aircraft operations. Examples include death or serious injury, a missing aircraft, structural damage, or a breakdown of separation standards. IRMs must be reported to the Australian Transport Safety Bureau (ATSB) by telephone as soon as reasonably practicable, followed by a written report within 72 hours.
regulationsImpulse Coupling
An impulse coupling is a mechanical device fitted to one magneto that provides a hot, retarded spark for easier engine starting. It works by winding up a spring and releasing it rapidly to spin the magneto magnets quickly, generating a strong spark at low cranking speeds. It also retards spark timing during start to prevent dangerous kick-back from the starter.
enginesIMSAFE
IMSAFE is a mnemonic used by pilots to determine whether they are physically and mentally fit to fly. It stands for Illness, Medication, Stress, Alcohol, Fatigue, and Eating. Assessing each of these factors before flight helps mitigate risks associated with human performance limitations.
human-factorsIndex Unit
An index unit is a scaled-down moment value used to simplify manual weight and balance calculations. By dividing the actual moment by a constant factor, it prevents pilots from having to work with excessively large numbers on loading charts.
loadingInduced Drag
Induced drag is a type of aerodynamic drag that is a direct by-product of an aerofoil generating lift. Unlike parasite drag, induced drag is highest at low airspeeds and high angles of attack, and gradually decreases as airspeed increases.
aerodynamicsInstrument Flight Rules (IFR)
Instrument flight rules (IFR) are a set of rules governing the navigation of aircraft when flying in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) or when navigating solely by reference to instruments. Pilots must hold a specific instrument rating and the aircraft must be appropriately equipped to operate under IFR.
regulationsInterference Drag
Interference drag is a type of parasite drag generated by the collision and mixing of varied airflows at the intersection of different aircraft components, such as where the wing root meets the fuselage. Aerodynamic fairings and fillets are often used to smooth these junctions and minimise the turbulent mixing.
aerodynamicsJ
K
L
Landing Distance Available (LDA)
Landing Distance Available (LDA) is the length of runway declared available and suitable for the ground run of an aeroplane landing. LDA is declared by the aerodrome operator and published in the AIP for certified aerodromes. Landing Distance Required (LDR) is measured from a height of 50 ft above the landing threshold at a speed of 1.3 VSO to a complete stop with maximum braking applied.
performanceLanding Distance Required (LDR)
Landing Distance Required (LDR) is the total distance required to safely land an aircraft, calculated from a specified height above the threshold to the point where the aircraft comes to a complete stop. This calculation must account for factoring and operational variables such as wind, slope, and surface conditions.
performanceLateral Centre of Gravity Range
The lateral centre of gravity range defines the permissible limits for the centre of gravity along the lateral axis of an aircraft. This is particularly critical in helicopter operations, where asymmetric loading can severely affect cyclic control margins and hover stability.
loadingLateral Stability
Lateral stability is the tendency of an aircraft to automatically return to a wings-level attitude after experiencing an uncommanded roll. Aerodynamic design features such as wing dihedral, sweepback, and a high-wing configuration are used to enhance this type of stability.
aerodynamicsLoad Factor
Load factor is the ratio between the effective or apparent weight of an aeroplane and its actual weight, and is expressed in units of g. Load factor increases significantly during manoeuvres such as steep level turns.
aerodynamicsLongitudinal Stability
Longitudinal stability is the inherent tendency of an aircraft to return to its original trimmed pitch attitude after being displaced by a disturbance, such as a gust. It involves motion about the lateral axis and is heavily dependent on the tailplane moment and the position of the centre of gravity.
aerodynamicsLowest Safe Altitude (LSALT)
Lowest Safe Altitude (LSALT) is the lowest altitude that provides a minimum clearance of 1,000 ft above all obstacles and terrain within a specified area or along a route segment. Grid LSALTs are published on En Route Charts (ERCs) and other navigation charts. Pilots operating below the LSALT are responsible for ensuring their own terrain clearance.
regulationsM
Magnetic Variation
Magnetic variation is the angular difference between true north and magnetic north at a given location on the Earth. Because navigational charts are aligned to true north while an aircraft compass points to magnetic north, variation must be applied to convert a true track to the correct magnetic track to fly. Variation is depicted on charts as isogonic lines and changes slowly over time.
navigationMagneto
A magneto is an engine-driven electrical generator that uses permanent magnets and coils to produce high-voltage current for the spark plugs. It operates independently of the aircraft's primary electrical system, ensuring the engine continues to run even if the alternator or battery fails.
enginesMaintenance Release
A maintenance release is an official document certifying that an aircraft has been inspected and maintained in accordance with CASA regulations and is safe for flight. It tracks required maintenance intervals, daily inspections, and records any unserviceabilities or defects.
flight-rulesMandatory Broadcast Area
A Mandatory Broadcast Area is a specified volume of airspace in which aircraft equipped with a VHF radio must make prescribed broadcasts and reports. Pilots must announce their situation and intentions before or immediately after entering the area, joining a circuit, or conducting an approach.
flight-rulesManoeuvring Area
The manoeuvring area is that part of an aerodrome used for the take-off, landing, and taxiing of aircraft, explicitly excluding aprons. It includes runways, taxiways, and other prepared surfaces used for aircraft movement. At controlled aerodromes, separation of aircraft on the manoeuvring area is a joint responsibility between the pilot and Air Traffic Control (ATC).
regulationsMaximum Landing Weight
Maximum Landing Weight is the maximum weight at which an aircraft is permitted to land under normal operating conditions. This limit exists to prevent structural damage to the undercarriage and airframe during the impact of touchdown.
performanceMaximum Manoeuvre Speed
Maximum manoeuvre speed is the maximum airspeed at which full and abrupt deflection of the flight controls will not overstress the aircraft structure. Above this speed, sudden control movements or severe turbulence could cause structural damage before the aircraft stalls.
performanceMaximum Structural Take-off Weight
Maximum Structural Take-off Weight is the absolute maximum weight at which an aircraft is structurally certified to commence a take-off run. It is a fixed limit determined by the manufacturer to prevent structural overstress during ground operations and lift-off.
performanceMaximum Take-off Weight (MTOW)
Maximum Take-off Weight (MTOW) is the maximum weight at which an aircraft is permitted to take off, as specified in its certificate of airworthiness. For type-certified aircraft, this figure may also appear in the Aircraft Flight Manual (AFM); however, if the certificate of airworthiness specifies a different weight to the manufacturer's document, the certificate of airworthiness weight applies. Exceeding MTOW invalidates the aircraft's airworthiness and insurance.
loadingMean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC)
The Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC) is the average chord length of a wing, used as a reference datum for calculating and expressing the aircraft's centre of gravity (CG) limits. The CG position can be expressed as a percentage of MAC for comparison purposes.
loadingMercy Flight
A mercy flight is a flight undertaken in a severe emergency to save a person's life or alleviate serious suffering when no other transport is available. A pilot in command (PIC) may declare a mercy flight, which may justify deviation from standard operating rules, provided strict notification conditions are met.
flight-rulesMicroburst
A microburst is a highly localised, intense downdraft associated with mature thunderstorms that causes severe low-level windshear. It presents significant hazards during take-off and landing by causing abrupt, extreme changes to indicated airspeed, groundspeed, and sink rate. Avoidance is the only safe procedure for light aircraft encountering microburst conditions.
meteorologyMinimum Equipment List
A Minimum Equipment List (MEL) is an approved document, specific to an aircraft type and operator, that lists instruments and equipment that may be inoperative under defined conditions while still permitting legal flight operations. It is developed from a Master Minimum Equipment List (MMEL) and approved by CASA, and requires that inoperative items be placarded with appropriate maintenance release entries made. For most light general aviation aircraft, permissible unserviceabilities (PUS) listed in the aircraft's maintenance release serve a similar function.
regulationsMinimum Fuel
Minimum fuel is a formal declaration made to air traffic services when an aircraft is committed to land at a specific aerodrome and any change to the existing clearance may result in landing with less than the final reserve fuel. It informs air traffic services (ATS) that an emergency situation is possible if any additional delays occur.
flight-rulesMinimum Heights
Minimum heights are the lowest altitudes at which flight is permitted over different areas under CASR Part 91. Over populous areas, aeroplanes must not fly below 1,000 ft above the highest feature or obstacle within a horizontal radius of 600 m of the point on the ground immediately below the aircraft. Over non-populous areas, aircraft must not fly below 500 ft above the highest feature or obstacle within a horizontal radius of 300 m of the point on the ground immediately below the aircraft.
flight-rulesMixture Control
The mixture control is a cockpit control used to manually adjust the fuel-to-air ratio entering the engine cylinders to compensate for changing air density at different altitudes. Operating with an excessively rich or lean mixture can severely degrade engine performance and lead to issues such as spark plug fouling or overheating.
enginesMotion Sickness
Motion sickness is a condition caused by a conflict between visual cues and the signals sent by the inner ear's balance mechanisms. It can be aggravated by turbulence, anxiety, or focusing inside the cockpit rather than looking outside. In-flight management includes keeping the head still, focusing on a distant outside reference, and ensuring an adequate supply of fresh air.
human-factorsMovement Area
The movement area is any part of an aerodrome that is used for the take-off, landing, and taxiing of aircraft. It encompasses both the manoeuvring areas (such as runways and taxiways) and the aprons where aircraft are parked, boarded, or refuelled.
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Never Exceed Speed (Vne)
Never Exceed Speed (VNE) is the absolute maximum speed at which an aircraft may be safely flown, marked by a red line on the airspeed indicator (ASI). Operating above this speed may result in immediate structural failure, flutter, or loss of control. It represents the extreme structural limit of the airframe under dynamic pressure.
performanceNight VFR
Night Visual Flight Rules (Night VFR) refers to flight conducted under Visual Flight Rules between the end of evening civil twilight and the beginning of morning civil twilight. It requires specific pilot qualifications, aircraft lighting, and navigation equipment while relying on both visual cues and instrument references.
flight-rulesNon-controlled Aerodrome
A non-controlled aerodrome is an aerodrome at which air traffic control (ATC) is not operating, requiring pilots to broadcast their intentions and coordinate their own separation. Pilots must follow specific circuit procedures and use the Common Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF) or equivalent to communicate with other traffic.
flight-rulesNon-Directional Beacon (NDB)
A non-directional beacon (NDB) is a ground-based radio transmitter that broadcasts radio energy in all directions on the LF/MF frequency bands. Aircraft equipped with an automatic direction finder (ADF) use these signals to determine the relative bearing to the station for tracking and position fixing.
navigationNormal Operating Speed (Vno)
Normal Operating Speed (VNO) is the maximum structural cruising speed of an aircraft, marked by the top of the green arc on the airspeed indicator (ASI). Flight above this speed is only permissible in smooth air and must be conducted with caution. It is also referred to as the maximum structural cruising speed.
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P
Parasite Drag
Parasite drag is a type of drag affecting a subsonic aircraft in flight, consisting of form drag, interference drag, and skin friction drag. Unlike induced drag, parasite drag does not result from the generation of lift, and it increases as airspeed increases.
aerodynamicsPassenger Briefing
A passenger briefing is a mandatory safety briefing provided by the pilot in command (PIC) or a crew member to all passengers before a flight. The briefing must cover essential safety instructions, including the use of seatbelts, emergency exits, and survival equipment.
regulationsPayload
Payload is the combined weight of passengers, baggage, and cargo carried on the aircraft for a flight. It represents the useful load an aircraft can transport after accounting for the aircraft's empty weight and required fuel. Payload does not include the weight of usable fuel.
loadingPilot in Command (PIC)
The pilot in command (PIC) is the pilot responsible for the operation and safety of the aircraft during flight time. The PIC has final authority over the aircraft and the maintenance of discipline by all persons on board, from the moment the doors are closed before take-off until they are opened after landing.
regulationsPitot-Static System
The pitot-static system is an integrated system of pressure sensors that provides pitot (dynamic) pressure and static pressure to the primary flight instruments. It drives the Airspeed Indicator (ASI), Altimeter, and Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI).
instrumentsPoint of No Return (PNR)
The Point of No Return (PNR) is the furthest point along a route that an aircraft can fly and still have enough fuel to safely return to the departure aerodrome while maintaining all required fuel reserves. It is heavily influenced by wind, as a headwind outbound results in a tailwind on the return leg.
navigationPressure Height
The height of an aircraft or aerodrome measured above the standard datum plane. It is determined by setting the altimeter subscale to the standard pressure setting of 1013.2 hPa.
performanceProhibited Area
A prohibited area is an area of airspace within which flight by civil aircraft is not permitted at any time. Prohibited areas are established under the Airspace Act 2007 for reasons of national security or defence. They are depicted on aeronautical charts and listed in ERSA and the AIP.
regulationsR
Radiation Fog
Radiation fog is a type of fog that forms at night under clear skies with light winds, as the Earth's surface cools rapidly via terrestrial radiation. The cooling ground lowers the temperature of the adjacent air to its dew point, causing condensation and fog formation. It is a common hazard for early-morning departures and arrivals.
meteorologyRecent Experience
Recent experience is the regulatory requirement that a pilot must have completed a specific number of flights, take-offs, or landings within a defined timeframe to exercise the privileges of their licence. To carry passengers by day, a pilot must have completed three take-offs and landings in the past 90 days. Different recency requirements apply for night and instrument flight.
regulationsRectification Interval
A rectification interval is the period within which an item on a Minimum Equipment List (MEL) that has become inoperative must be rectified after its discovery. Categorised into intervals (A, B, C, and D), this ensures that aircraft do not operate indefinitely with unserviceable equipment.
regulationsRelative Airflow
Relative airflow is the direction of airflow produced by the movement of the aircraft through the air. It flows in a direction exactly parallel and opposite to the flight path of the aircraft, and is not dependent on the aircraft's pitch attitude.
aerodynamicsRequired Navigation Performance
Required Navigation Performance (RNP) is a specification of performance-based navigation (PBN) that relies on area navigation but strictly requires the aircraft's onboard systems to have performance monitoring and alerting capabilities. This ensures the aircraft stays within highly specific navigational tolerances.
navigationRestricted Area
A restricted area is airspace of defined dimensions within which the flight of aircraft is restricted in accordance with specified conditions. Pilots must obtain an ATC clearance or approval from the relevant controlling authority before entering an active restricted area. Restricted area conditional status — RA1, RA2, or RA3 — indicates the likelihood of obtaining a clearance to enter.
regulationsRight-of-Way Rules
Right-of-way rules are a set of standard regulations determining which aircraft must give way to another when their flight paths converge. The fundamental rule is that an aircraft must give way to another aircraft on its right, and an aircraft being overtaken has the right of way.
flight-rulesRime Ice
Rime ice is a rough, milky, and opaque type of airframe icing that forms when small supercooled water droplets freeze almost instantly upon striking the aircraft surface. It typically accumulates on the leading edges of wings and struts. Air becomes trapped in the rapidly freezing droplets, giving rime ice its characteristic milky appearance.
meteorologyRoutinely Reportable Matter (RRM)
An aviation safety occurrence that must be reported to the ATSB within 72 hours under the Transport Safety Investigation Act 2003. RRMs are less critical than Immediately Reportable Matters (IRMs) but still require formal notification.
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SARTIME
SARTIME is the time nominated by a pilot for the initiation of search and rescue action if a report has not been received by that nominated time. It is a critical safety net for flights, particularly when operating outside controlled airspace.
flight-rulesSARWATCH
SARWATCH is a generic term covering Search and Rescue Watch alerting for aircraft. It can be based on full position reporting procedures, scheduled reporting times (SKEDS), or a nominated SARTIME. If a SARWATCH is not cancelled by the nominated time, search and rescue procedures are initiated.
flight-rulesSIGMET
A SIGMET (Significant Meteorological Information) is a weather advisory issued to alert pilots of potentially hazardous en-route meteorological phenomena. These hazards include severe thunderstorms, severe turbulence, severe icing, and volcanic ash. A SIGMET provides information on the location, extent, and expected movement of these hazards and is relevant to all aircraft.
meteorologySomatogravic Illusion
The somatogravic illusion is a sensory illusion where rapid linear acceleration is incorrectly perceived by the vestibular system as a pitch-up attitude. Conversely, rapid deceleration can be perceived as a pitch-down attitude, particularly when external visual cues are poor.
human-factorsSpatial Disorientation
Spatial disorientation is a condition where a pilot's perception of direction, altitude, or airspeed contradicts reality, usually occurring when visual cues are poor or ambiguous. It results from conflicting information between the eyes, inner ear (vestibular system), and proprioceptive system. Overcoming this requires trusting the aircraft's flight instruments over physical sensations.
human-factorsSpecial Flight Permit
A special flight permit is a permit issued under CASR Part 21 to allow an aircraft that may not currently meet applicable airworthiness requirements, but is capable of safe flight, to be flown. It is commonly used for purposes such as repositioning an aircraft for maintenance, delivery, or testing.
regulationsSpecial VFR
Special VFR is a clearance issued by Air Traffic Control (ATC) that allows a VFR flight to operate in controlled airspace under meteorological conditions that are below the standard VMC criteria. It is only permitted during the day and requires the pilot to remain clear of cloud and maintain a minimum flight visibility.
flight-rulesSpecific Range
Specific range is the distance an aircraft travels over the ground per unit of fuel consumed, expressed in units such as nautical miles per kilogram. It is a key metric used to determine cruise efficiency and maximum range performance. Pilots use specific range to identify the optimum cruise speed and altitude for a given flight.
performanceSpiral Dive
A spiral dive is a steep, descending turn characterised by an excessively high bank angle, rapidly increasing airspeed, and a rapidly increasing rate of descent. Unlike a spin, the wings are not stalled during a spiral dive.
aerodynamicsStation
A station is a designated location within the aircraft, identified by its distance from the datum, where weight may be placed. Stations are used in load sheet calculations to account for specific seat rows, baggage compartments, and fuel tanks. Maximum load limits often apply to individual stations and must not be exceeded.
loadingSterile Cockpit Procedures
Sterile cockpit procedures are established procedures that require the flight crew to refrain from non-essential activities and conversations during critical phases of flight. This minimises distractions, noise, and unnecessary movement in the cockpit.
human-factorsSuction Gauge
The suction gauge is an engine instrument that indicates the amount of vacuum pressure available to drive the pneumatically powered gyroscopic instruments. A zero or low reading indicates a failure of the vacuum pump or a system leak. When suction is lost, the artificial horizon and directional indicator will spool down and become unreliable.
instrumentsSupplemental Oxygen
Supplemental oxygen is an additional oxygen supply required for flight crew and passengers when operating at high cabin pressure altitudes to prevent hypoxia. Strict regulations dictate the carriage and continuous use of oxygen equipment above specific flight levels.
human-factorsSurveillance Information Service (SIS)
A Surveillance Information Service (SIS) is an on-request service provided to VFR flights in Class E and G airspace that are within ATS surveillance system coverage. Pilots receiving this service are provided with traffic information, an alerting service, and, on request, position or navigation information.
flight-rulesT
Tachometer
A tachometer is a primary engine instrument that indicates the rotational speed of the engine's crankshaft in revolutions per minute (RPM). In an aeroplane fitted with a fixed-pitch propeller, the tachometer is the main indicator of power output and is used to detect gradual power loss, such as that caused by engine icing.
enginesTake-off Distance Available (TODA)
Take-off Distance Available (TODA) is the total length of the runway available for an aircraft's take-off run, plus the length of any clearway provided beyond the end of the runway. It represents the maximum distance an aircraft has to complete its take-off and climb to a specified screen height.
performanceTake-off Distance Required (TODR)
Take-off Distance Required (TODR) is the horizontal distance required from the commencement of the take-off roll to the point at which the aircraft reaches a height of 50 ft above the runway surface (the screen height). For light aeroplanes not exceeding 5,700 kg Maximum Take-off Weight (MTOW), this is the standard AFM reference. Obstacle clearance along the departure path is a separate consideration.
performanceTemperature Inversion
A temperature inversion is an atmospheric condition where the temperature of the air increases with altitude, contrary to the normal standard lapse rate where temperature decreases with height. This creates a highly stable layer of air that restricts vertical atmospheric mixing.
meteorologyTerminal Area Forecast (TAF)
A Terminal Area Forecast (TAF) is a statement of meteorological conditions expected for a specified period within a 5 NM radius of the aerodrome reference point. It includes prevailing visibility, wind speed and direction, cloud ceiling, and significant weather phenomena.
meteorologyThreat and Error Management
Threat and Error Management (TEM) is a safety framework that involves identifying and managing threats (external hazards) and errors (pilot mistakes) to prevent an undesired aircraft state. It emphasises the proactive use of resources, checklists, and standard operating procedures.
human-factorsTime of Useful Consciousness
Time of Useful Consciousness (TUC), also known as effective performance time, is the approximate duration a pilot can function effectively without supplemental oxygen at a given altitude. TUC decreases significantly with increasing altitude, dropping rapidly above 20,000 ft. Prompt recognition of hypoxia symptoms is critical, as impairment can develop faster than expected.
human-factorsTrack Made Good (TMG)
The track made good (TMG) is the actual path travelled by an aircraft over the ground, which may differ from the planned track due to the effects of wind drift or steering inaccuracies. Comparing the planned track to the TMG allows a pilot to calculate track error.
navigationTransition Altitude
The transition altitude is the altitude at or below which the vertical position of an aircraft is referenced to the local or area QNH. Above this altitude, vertical position is referenced to standard pressure (1013.2 hPa). Cruising within the transition layer — between the transition altitude and the transition level — is not permitted.
flight-rulesTransition Layer
The transition layer is the airspace located between the transition altitude (10,000 ft AMSL in Australia) and the transition level (normally FL110). Cruising within the transition layer is strictly prohibited to ensure a safe vertical buffer between aircraft flying on local QNH and those flying on the standard pressure setting.
flight-rulesTransition Level
The transition level is the lowest available flight level above the transition altitude. In the Australian Flight Information Region, it is normally FL110 when the area QNH is 1013.2 hPa or higher, but adjusts upward when the area QNH drops below 1013.2 hPa.
flight-rulesTrip Fuel
Trip fuel is the calculated amount of fuel required for an aircraft to fly from take-off to the planned destination aerodrome. It encompasses fuel used for take-off, climb, cruise, descent, and executing an approach and landing. Trip fuel does not include taxi fuel, contingency fuel, holding fuel, or final reserve fuel.
performanceTrue Airspeed (TAS)
True Airspeed (TAS) is the actual speed of an aircraft through the air mass in which it is flying. It is calculated by correcting Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) for non-standard temperature and pressure altitude.
navigationTurbocharger
A turbocharger is an exhaust-driven supercharging device used to increase the manifold pressure and density of the air supplied to the engine cylinders. By compressing the intake air, it allows the engine to maintain its power output at higher altitudes where the air is normally less dense.
enginesTurn Coordinator
The turn coordinator is a gyroscopic instrument that indicates the rate of turn and roll, providing guidance to establish standard rate turns. It includes an inclinometer (slip indicator ball) to show whether a turn is balanced. It is often electrically driven, providing redundancy if the vacuum-driven artificial horizon fails.
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V
Vestibular Apparatus
The vestibular apparatus is the physiological system within the inner ear that provides the brain with sensory information regarding motion, equilibrium, and spatial orientation. It consists of the semicircular canals, which detect angular acceleration, and the otolith organs, which detect linear acceleration.
human-factorsVHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR)
A VHF omnidirectional range (VOR) is a short-range radio navigation system that enables aircraft to determine their position and stay on course by receiving radio signals transmitted by fixed ground beacons. It provides 360 distinct magnetic radials radiating outward from the station.
navigationVisual Approach
A visual approach is an approach to an aerodrome conducted with visual reference to terrain and the aerodrome environment. Visual approaches may be conducted by both VFR and IFR flights. For VFR flights, specific tracking requirements apply during a visual approach, including requirements for night operations.
flight-rulesVisual Flight Rules (VFR)
Visual flight rules (VFR) are a set of aviation regulations under which a pilot operates an aircraft in weather conditions clear enough to allow the pilot to see where the aircraft is going. VFR flights must comply with specific visual meteorological conditions (VMC) criteria regarding visibility and distance from cloud.
regulationsVMC Criteria
Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC) criteria define the minimum flight visibility and cloud distance requirements that must be met for flight under Visual Flight Rules (VFR). These criteria vary by airspace class and altitude band.
flight-rulesW
Wake Turbulence
Wake turbulence is turbulence generated by the passage of an aircraft in flight, primarily caused by wingtip vortices or helicopter downwash. It can be extremely hazardous to smaller aircraft operating closely behind or below large transport aircraft.
aerodynamicsWaste Gate
A waste gate is a component within a turbocharged engine system that controls the amount of exhaust gas directed to the turbocharger's turbine. By regulating exhaust flow, the waste gate limits the supercharging of the intake system and prevents the engine from exceeding its maximum manifold pressure.
enginesWing Loading
Wing loading is the ratio of an aircraft's total weight to the total surface area of its wings. It is a critical design parameter affecting stall speed, manoeuvrability, and turbulence response. Note: load factor is a separate term defined as the ratio between the effective (apparent) weight and the aircraft's actual weight.
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